Animal Diet, Mobility, and Social Complexity in Middle Helladic Central and Northwest Greece

The Middle Helladic (MH) period (ca. 2000–1700 BCE) on the Greek mainland has traditionally been portrayed as a “Dark Age,” [1] wedged between the flourishing Early Helladic II and the palatial societies of Late Helladic III. [2] This view stems largely from the relative paucity of monumental architecture and the scarcity of long-distance trade indicators. Some scholars argue that the period was dominated by nomadic and pastoral lifeways that shaped its economy and socio-political organization. [3] Our current understanding, however, derives primarily from cultural material—chiefly pottery—from coastal settlements and islands. In contrast, the inland regions of Central and Northwest Greece—areas with complex ecologies and long-term human occupation—have been largely neglected. As a result, these inland zones remain significantly underexplored in Aegean Bronze Age research, particularly in terms of their economic organization as inferred through the study of biogenic remains, and more specifically, faunal assemblages. [4]

This project, conducted under the auspices of the CHS Early Career Fellowship, aims to reassess the MH period by examining the management of animals—particularly their diet, seasonal patterns, and mobility—as a lens through which to explore broader patterns of social and economic organization. The focus on animal exploitation practices offers a powerful approach to understanding the lived experiences, ecological strategies, and emerging complexities of MH communities.

The research draws upon four Middle Helladic sites forming a south-to-north transect across mainland Greece: Agia Paraskevi/Platania in Phthiotis, [5] Mascholouri in Karditsa, [6] Petroto in Trikala, [7] and Logkas in Kozani [8] (Fig. 1) These sites were chosen for their environmental diversity, ranging from deltaic marshes and inland plains to upland valleys, allowing a comparative analysis of subsistence strategies across different ecologies.

The study addresses three interrelated research questions. First, how did environmental and ecological factors influence livestock diets and mobility across these inland settlements? Second, in what ways did the interaction between community location and animal management shape emerging social and economic structures? And third, what role did livestock exploitation play in the transformations that paved the way for the complex societies of the Late Bronze Age?

To investigate these questions, the project combines traditional zooarchaeological methods with advanced analytical techniques. Macroscopic analysis of the faunal assemblages includes taxonomic identification, anatomical representation, demographic profiling, biometric measurements, pathological observations, and taphonomic alterations.

These primary observations were then complemented by three high-resolution techniques. Two-dimensional dental microwear analysis was employed to reconstruct short-term dietary signatures in domestic animals by examining chewing-surface abrasion patterns [9] (Fig. 2). Cementochronology enabled the identification of birth and death seasons through incremental analysis of cementum in teeth, shedding light on seasonal herding cycles. [10] Stable isotope analysis—currently underway at the Demokritos research facility in Athens—measured carbon (δ¹³C), nitrogen (δ¹⁵N), oxygen (δ¹⁸O), sulfur (δ³⁴S), and strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) values to assess diet, mobility, and geographic origin. [11] The latter technique is being applied to both animal and human remains.

Archaeological, architectural, and geophysical survey [12] findings from two of the sites under study—namely Platania and Petroto—reveal settlement structures consistent with broader MH architectural patterns. Both sites exhibit unfortified layouts, with houses arranged along alleyways or around open spaces. The predominant architectural form is the apsidal house—elongated with rounded ends—often internally organized into distinct functional zones. Interior features include hearths and storage pits.

Household-level production is attested by the discovery of loom weights and grinding stones, indicating small-scale textile manufacture and food processing. Burial practices further reinforce the household as the central social unit: children at Platania were interred beneath house floors, while adult graves at Petroto were located within the settlement grid. [13] These practices emphasize continuity between the living and the dead and suggest long-term occupation of place.

The analysis of faunal remains from Platania and Petroto reveals distinct species distributions that reflect adaptation to local environments. At Platania, pigs are the most frequently represented species, followed by sheep, cattle, and goats. This pattern corresponds to the limited grazing space available around the settlement, which was further constrained by the presence—according to palaeogeographical studies—of nearby wetlands and a previously extensive coastal lagoon system. [14] This interpretation is further supported by the occurrence of lagoonal mollusks in the archaeological record. [15] Ιn contrast, Petroto is located in the fertile Trikala plain, where cattle dominate the assemblage, followed by sheep, goats, and pigs. The prominence of cattle in this setting reflects a strategic adaptation to intensive agriculture, likely involving an emphasis on traction, as suggested by age-at-death profiles.

Sheep and goats were central to subsistence, though their exploitation strategies varied by site. At Platania, sheep appear to have been primarily managed for fiber production, while goats were raised for meat. At Petroto, both species show a stronger orientation toward secondary products, particularly wool and hair. The scarcity of neonatal remains at both sites suggests that milk production was not a major economic priority. The presence of loom weights at both sites further supports the interpretation of wool-based textile production, likely carried out at the household level.

Cattle were typically maintained into adulthood, and pathological changes observed on phalanges from Petroto are consistent with stress injuries associated with draft work. This provides strong evidence for the use of cattle in ploughing and other traction-related activities, a practice well-suited to Petroto’s broad alluvial landscape. Pigs, by contrast, were generally slaughtered before their first year of life, indicating a focus on rapid meat production. Some subadult individuals may have been kept longer for fattening purposes, particularly at Platania.

Animal processing appears to have taken place within the settlements. Skinning marks are concentrated on skulls and lower limbs, while dismemberment cuts occur at major joints. Filleting marks along the diaphyses of long bones and evidence of marrow extraction from large cattle bones suggest systematic meat harvesting and consumption. Culinary practices inferred from bone surface modifications indicate that boiling was the predominant cooking method. The scarcity of burned bones implies that roasting was infrequent—possibly reserved for special occasions or communal feasts—while boiling likely constituted the everyday norm.

Wild animals were present at both sites, albeit in modest quantities. At Platania, the faunal assemblage also includes marine species, consistent with the site’s Bronze Age proximity to a coastal or lagoonal environment. Red deer dominate the game spectrum, followed by wild boar and fallow deer—the latter found only at Platania. Butchery marks on these remains suggest they were primarily exploited for meat, though antler and boar tusks may have been used for crafting purposes.

A particularly noteworthy find is a boar’s tusk plate from Platania, almost certainly part of a boar’s tusk helmet. Such helmets are typically associated with Mycenaean elites of the Late Helladic period, but the example from Platania dates to MH II and constitutes one of the earliest known instances of this prestigious artifact type. Its presence at a non-palatial site highlights the emergence of social differentiation well before the Mycenaean palaces, suggesting that mechanisms of elite display were already taking shape during the Middle Bronze Age.

Dogs were also part of the domestic and settlement landscape. Remains from both sites show evidence of gnawing, suggesting their role as scavengers. Their association with other domestic species further indicates that dogs may have been used as guards, hunters, or even companions. Alongside canids, the presence of equids also deserves mention. Although a single equid bone from Petroto may belong to a later phase—when equids are securely attested both archaeologically and in written sources such as Linear B tablets—the evidence from Middle Helladic Logkas, where equid burials have been found, suggests that these animals were likely known and perhaps already employed for transport or riding during the MH period. [16]

Beyond species presence and exploitation, the treatment of animal remains within settlements offers further insights into daily life and social practices. Taphonomic observations from both sites reveal mixed strategies of bone disposal. Some assemblages contain articulated remains that were likely buried shortly after discard, suggesting controlled waste management. Other bones exhibit signs of gnawing, weathering, and trampling, indicating longer surface exposure. This variation reflects differences in household discard practices and suggests that certain contexts—perhaps tied to communal or ceremonial activities—produced refuse managed separately from everyday domestic waste.

The research conducted through the CHS Early Career Fellowship presents the first multi-site, high-resolution investigation of animal economies in Middle Helladic inland Greece. Preliminary findings reveal communities that were both stable and adaptive—managing herds with sophistication, exploiting diverse environments, and engaging in symbolic practices that anticipate later Mycenaean traditions. Variability in species exploitation, cattle traction, and butchery techniques suggests regional economic differentiation, while the presence of elite artifacts, such as the boar’s tusk plate, points to the emergence of social hierarchies.

The ongoing laboratory work—which integrates zooarchaeological, dental microwear, cementochronological, and isotopic data—continues to deepen our understanding of animal management strategies, dietary practices, and seasonal rhythms across ecologically distinct landscapes, contributing to a more nuanced reconstruction of Middle Helladic society. By placing animal management at the center of Bronze Age lifeways, the project offers new perspectives on the socio-environmental foundations of Aegean complexity.

This research would not have been possible without the financial support of the CHS Early Career Fellowship and access to Harvard’s library resources. The opportunity to work at the CHS facilities in Washington, D.C., and Nafplio has further enriched the experience—both academically and personally.