Women in Ancient Atomism: Physiology, Epistemology, and Gender Ethics

My project examines the concept of “womanhood” in ancient atomism and the philosophical contributions of female atomistic philosophers in Greece and Rome. Accordingly, I am pursuing two interrelated research objectives (ROs). With the first (RO1), I aim to reconstruct how male atomists conceived of female nature by analysing three key aspects: 1) the physical perspective (= the study of female physiology and anatomy); 2) the epistemological aspect (= the nature of a woman’s mind, including how her desires and cognitive faculties may differ from those of men); 3) the ethical perspective, i.e. an exploration of the ideal relationship between men and women, as well as their collaboration in fostering mutual happiness. The second research objective (RO2) is to collect and analyse the sources—which in some cases are fragments—of female Epicurean philosophers.

The scholarly findings of this investigation will ultimately culminate in a monograph, which is provisionally structured into five chapters:

1. The Feminine Principal in Democritus? – I argue that, despite his misogynistic ethical views, Democritus identified atomic processes that parallel the structure of sexual generation and childbirth. Additionally, he acknowledged that men who can be considered as wise agents embody certain positive “feminine” virtues (see the continuation of the report for details).
2. Epicurus’ Wisdom and the Epicurean Wise Women – This chapter begins by reconstructing the philosophical conception of “womanhood” advocated in the early phase of Epicurus’ school, which, among other aspects, recognised the cognitive equality of the sexes and supported the emancipation of women from their traditional roles as mothers / household caretakers. It then examines the specific intellectual contributions of female Epicureans such as Batis, Leontion, and Themista (see below for further details), as well as their fidelity to Epicurus’ teachings.
3. The Back-Forward Path of Lucretius – As the chapter title suggests, I aim to demonstrate that Lucretius’ De rerum natura continues Democritus’ exploration of “feminine” processes in nature, while also expanding on Michael Pope’s intriguing thesis that the Epicurean poet sought to deconstruct the Roman ideology of masculinity (Pope 2023). At the same time, I argue that these philosophical objectives did not align with a genuinely positive view of women. In particular, I closely examine the overtly negative passages (e.g. DRN V 1355–1356); highlight the ambiguous nature of seemingly favourable female representations (such as Venus, who appears in Book 1 as a bringer of peace, yet later in Book 4 reveals her true, more dangerous nature); and underscore the notable absence of Epicurus’ more progressive, “feminist” ideas in Lucretius’ work.
4. Wife, Sinner, Feeble Philosopher: the Multifaceted Inquiry of Demetrius Laco and Philodemus – Similar to my argument in the chapter on Lucretius, I contend that Demetrius and Philodemus represent yet other Epicurean thinkers who revert to a more traditional and less appreciative view of female nature. Furthermore, I propose that their perspective can ultimately be traced back to their teacher Zeno of Sidon who, according to Soranus, claimed that women are inherently imperfect and weak human beings (Gynecology III 3 = fr. 28, ed. Angeli-Colaizzo 1979). On a more positive note, my analysis emphasises Philodemus’ systematic spirit of inquiry. Among the Epicureans, he stands out as a thinker who examines women from multiple perspectives, i.a. household management (On Oeconomics), their role in philosophical inquiry (On Frank Criticism), their sexual and moral behaviour (On Music, Book 4).
5. The Empress Plotina and the Epicurean “Nachleben” – The first part of this final chapter examines female Epicureans from the first century onward. A particularly noteworthy figure is Empress Plotina, who wrote an extensive letter advocating for the selection of a new director for the Epicurean school in Athens. Additionally, other Roman women philosophers, whose presence is attested in epigraphic evidence, merit closer analysis. The second part of this chapter shifts to the Renaissance and early modern period, exploring both male and female intellectuals who engaged with Epicurus’ views on women. Some male philosophers revived and reshaped aspects of Epicurean “feminism”, such as Maffeo Vegio, whose speech in the first book of Valla’s De voluptate reflects Epicurean themes, and Pierre Gassendi, who praises the Epicurean woman in Book V of De vita et moribus Epicuri. Meanwhile, some female poets and writers, including Lucy Hutchinson and Margaret Cavendish, exhibited sympathies toward Epicureanism, integrating its ideas into their own works.
6. Appendix – Sources on the Epicurean female philosophers: The evidence concerning the Epicurean female philosophers discussed in this book will be numbered, arranged chronologically, and translated into English, with the original Greek or Latin text provided alongside.

During my period at the Center for Hellenic Studies, I completed a very provisional first draft of chapter 1 and made progress on chapter 2. A portion of the latter was presented at the CHS fellow internal seminar. In my talk, I followed in the footsteps of Don Fowler, who in his paper The Feminine Principle: Gender in the «De rerum natura» (= Fowler 1996) argued that positive appreciations of femininity and the nature of women can be found within Lucretius’ otherwise misogynistic ethics. Building on this approach, I proposed that Democritus reasoned in a similar manner. Despite his generally negative views on women and his insistence on their subordination to men, some of his fragments reveal at least three elements that suggest an appreciation of feminine capacities: qualities embodied by nature and essential for wise agents who wish to achieve a blessed life.

The first element is Democritus’ conception of the Earth as a “mother” or a quasi-animated entity that generates and nurtures everything. To support this argument, I have studied several testimonies crediting Democritus as one of the ancient thinkers who described the first origins of humans and animals as emerging from “wombs” sprouting from the earth. In the sources that I have studied, one often comes across depictions of atoms as “seeds” of living beings, generating all things through “intercourses”, and some of these sources suggest an analogy between childbirth and atomic motion. This reconstruction is further supported by Democritus’ embryological theories, particularly his claim that women contribute their own semen to the formation of offspring and that the mother shapes in the womb not only the child’s body and soul but possibly even their moral character.

A second element suggesting the recognition of a “feminine principle” in Democritus’ thought is his allegorical interpretation of Homer’s female characters as personifications of complex moral ideas. My analysis focused on Eumaeus’ mother in the Odyssey (xv 366–373), who embodies poverty as a force that teaches self-sufficiency, as well as the fact that Athena is referred to with the epithet Τριτογένεια, symbolising wisdom as the ability to speak, act, and reason carefully. The central argument of this reconstruction is that the ethical concepts represented by these Homeric figures exhibit “feminine” qualities, suggesting the presence of a fundamental feminine component (= principle) in human wisdom.

Building on this hypothesis, the third element of my reconstruction examines whether the feminine qualities personified by Homeric characters can offer insights into Democritus’ ethical thought. I argue that a clear parallel emerges in relation to one aspect of Athena Τριτογένεια’s wisdom: the necessity of silence at the right moment. Women are explicitly required to possess this virtue, as Democritus asserts that they should remain silent and speak little. At first glance, this statement might appear as yet another instance of his misogynistic views. However, I propose that this emphasis on silence should instead be understood as a positive “feminine” quality, or a trait that the Democritean male wise agent must cultivate in order to fully realize his rational potential. This interpretation is reinforced by Democritus’ moral maxims, which emphasize that the virtuous person must avoid speaking excessively or inopportunely.

My provisional draft of chapter 1 also includes an analysis of Democritean doctrines that I did not address in my CHS talk. I explore Democritus’ views on the generation of animals, which offer further insights into his embryological theories, and I dedicate a substantial section to his attitude toward family life and child-rearing, highlighting his belief that the wise should avoid marriage and family-building. Once again, I sought to identify positive aspects within this generally negative framework. These include Democritus’ advocacy for an unconventional form of family, where wise individuals adopt the children of unwise parents who nonetheless exhibit seeds of virtue, as well as philosophical guidance for men and women who choose to have children, providing practical advice on how to live as happily as possible despite this irrational decision.

Regarding chapter 2, I have expanded the section on the courtesan philosopher Leontion, who is also the subject of a forthcoming essay of mine (Piergiacomi 2025) and have begun reconstructing Epicurus’ and other early male Epicureans’ attitudes toward women. However, the most innovative part of this chapter is my study of the philosophical contributions of Themista. Ancient sources describe her as the wife of Leonteus, a prominent citizen of Lampsacus, and as a philosopher highly esteemed by Epicurus, to the extent that he dedicated to her at least the lost treatise On Neocles. Some of the findings from this section were also presented in a talk entitled La vanità della gloria: l’epicurea Temista e la filosofia politica di Epicuro, at a seminar organized by Prof. Maddalena Bonelli and Dr. Mariana Gardella Hueso at the University of Bergamo, titled Ancient Women Philosophers: Texts and Problems (see link here). The fact that the talk draws on the research completed during my CHS fellowship was duly acknowledged.

Both in chapter 2 of my monograph and in this talk, I propose that Themista’s primary philosophical contribution was a reflection on the tension between the pursuit of glory and Epicurean ethics. Aligning with Epicurus’ view that the desire for glory is natural but not necessary for pleasure and security, she may have argued that such a desire should be controlled, if not entirely eliminated, as it harms bodily well-being and subjects the individual to dependence on societal opinion. In this sense, she would have reinforced the Epicurean dictum «Live unnoticed». The key text supporting my reconstruction is a passage from a lost speech by Calpurnius Piso against glory, which Cicero—its main witness—links to a now-lost work by Themista (Against Piso 59-60). This connection suggests a possible intellectual influence of the female philosopher on the Roman politician. While my reconstruction remains necessarily speculative, it highlights the possibility that Themista was not only a prominent figure within the Epicurean school but also served as a philosophical advisor to her husband Leonteus. Ancient sources indicate that Leonteus was prone to errors, so his wife’s critique of the desire for glory may have been intended to dissuade him from recklessly trying to win fame within the city of Lampsacus.

In conclusion, my visiting period at the CHS was both highly productive and intellectually rewarding, enabling me to advance my research on the philosophical perspectives of Epicurean women, a topic that remains understudied in the history of ancient philosophy. Beyond my academic progress, my stay was also immensely enriching on a personal level, as I had the opportunity to engage with colleagues who have similar research interests and explore potential future collaborations. I aim to complete this project by 2026 and look forward to the possibility of collaborating with the CHS again in the near future.